A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF OPTICAL COHERENCE TOMOGRAPHY (OCT) IN VETERINARY OPHTHALMOLOGY: PRINCIPLES, CURRENT APPLICATIONS, AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS: A REVIEW
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.66211/tmvm.v11i2.342Keywords:
Optical coherence tomography, veterinary ophthalmology, anterior segment, OCT angiography, posterior segment, spectral-domain OCTAbstract
Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a non-invasive imaging technique that enables high-resolution, cross-sectional visualization of ocular tissues in vivo. Since its introduction into ophthalmology, OCT has become an essential diagnostic tool in human clinical practice and has progressively gained importance in veterinary ophthalmology. Its ability to provide near-histological structural information without direct tissue contact makes OCT particularly suitable for use in animal patients, where limited cooperation and the need for repeatable examinations represent common challenges.
This narrative review summarizes the fundamental principles of OCT technology and provides an over-view of its current applications in veterinary ophthalmology. The use of OCT for imaging the anterior segment, including the cornea, anterior chamber, iridocorneal angle, and iris, is discussed alongside its applications in the posterior segment, such as retinal layer analysis and optic nerve head evaluation. Special attention is given to technological advances, including spectral-domain OCT and optical coherence tomography angiography, which have expanded the ability to visualize subtle structural changes and ocular microvasculature. Species-specific anatomical considerations, technical limitations, and practical challenges related to image acquisition in veterinary patients are also addressed, together with future perspectives involving artificial intelligence and multimodal imaging approaches. Overall, OCT represents a valuable diagnostic and research tool with ex-panding potential in veterinary ophthalmology.
References
1. Alario, A. and C. Pirie. (2014). Reliability of manual measurements of corneal thickness obtained from healthy canine eyes using spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT). Cana-dian Journal of Veterinary Research, 78(3), 221-225.
2. Annear, M., F. Mowat, L. Occelli, A. Smith, P. Curran, J. Bainbridge, R. Ali, S. Petersen-Jones. (2021). A comprehensive study of the retinal phenotype of Rpe65-deficient dogs. Cells, 10(1), 115.
3. Arrigo, A., L. Bianco, A. Antropoli, A. Saladino, A. Berni, M. Parodi, F. Bandello. (2023). New OCT and OCTA insights in inherited retinal dystrophies. In: Optical Coherence Tomography-De-velopments and Innovations in Ophthalmology (G. lo Giudice & I. Gattazzo Eds.), IntechOpen, UK.
4. Beckmann, L., Z. Cai, M. Margolis, R. Fang, A. Djalilian, H. Zhang. (2022). Recent advances in optical coherence tomography for anterior segment imaging in small animals and their clinical implications. The Ocular Surface, 26, 222–233.
5. Blanchard, A., E. Barr, B. Gilger. (2019). Evaluation of equine corneal disease using spectral do-main optical coherence tomography (SD‐OCT). Veterinary Ophthalmology, 22(6), 791–798.
6. Borrelli, E., D. Sarraf, K. Freund, S. Sadda. (2018). OCT angiography and evaluation of the choroid and choroidal vascular disorders. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research, 67, 30–55.
7. Boroffka, S., C. Görig, E. Auriemma, M. Passon‐Vastenburg, G. Voorhout, P. Barthez. (2008). Magnetic resonance imaging of the canine optic nerve. Veterinary Radiology & Ultrasound, 49(6), 540–544.
8. Brezinski, M. and J. Fujimoto. (2002). Optical coherence tomography: high-resolution imaging in nontransparent tissue. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics, 5(4), 1185–1192.
9. Chen, S., X, Liu, N. Wang, X. Wang, Q. Xiong, E. Bo, X. Yu, S. Chen, L. Liu. (2017). Visualizing micro-anatomical structures of the posterior cornea with micro-optical coherence tomography. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 10752.
10. Choi, W., Z. Zhi, R. Wang. (2014). In vivo OCT microangiography of rodent iris. Optics Letters, 39(8), 2455–2458.
11. Craven, E., V. Chopra, J. Goldberg, K. Marion, X. Chen, C. Chang, M. Chen. (2022). Comparison of iridocorneal angle assessments in open-angle glaucoma and ocular hypertension patients: ante-rior segment optical coherence tomography and gonioscopy. Clinical Ophthalmology, 1301–1312.
12. De Boer, J., R. Leitgeb, M. Wojtkowski. (2017). Twenty-five years of optical coherence tomogra-phy: the paradigm shift in sensitivity and speed provided by Fourier domain OCT. Biomedical Optics Express, 8(7), 3248–3280.
13. Devine, B., A. Dogan, W. Sobol. (2025). Recent Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) Innova-tions for Increased Accessibility and Remote Surveillance. Bioengineering, 12(5), 441.
14. Espinheira Gomes, F., S. Parry, E. Ledbetter. (2019). Spectral domain optical coherence tomogra-phy evaluation of the feline optic nerve and peripapillary retina. Veterinary Ophthalmology, 22(5), 623–632.
15. Famose, F. (2013). Assessment of the use of spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD‐OCT) for evaluation of the healthy and pathological cornea in dogs and cats. Veterinary Ophthal-mology, 17(1), 12–22.
16. Fan, Y., Y. Xia, X. Zhang, Y. Sun, J. Tang, L. Zhang, H. Liao. (2018). Optical coherence tomog-raphy for precision brain imaging, neurosurgical guidance and minimally invasive theranostics. BioScience Trends, 12(1), 12–23.
17. Fercher, A., W. Drexler, C. Hitzenberger, T. Lasser. (2003). Optical coherence tomography-prin-ciples and applications. Reports on Progress in Physics, 66(2), 239.
18. Goldsmith, J., Y. Li, M. Chalita, V. Westphal, C. Patil, A. Rollins, J. Izatt, D. Huang. (2005). An-terior chamber width measurement by high-speed optical coherence tomography. Ophthalmology, 112(2), 238–244.
19. Graham, K., C. McCowan, K. Caruso, F. Billson, C. Whittaker, A. White. (2020). Optical coher-ence tomography of the retina, nerve fiber layer, and optic nerve head in dogs with glaucoma. Veterinary Ophthalmology, 23(1), 97–112.
20. Grozdanic, S., T. Lazic, H. Kecova, K. Mohan, M. Kuehn. (2019). Optical coherence tomography and molecular analysis of sudden acquired retinal degeneration syndrome (SARDS) eyes suggests the immune‐mediated nature of retinal damage. Veterinary Ophthalmology, 22(3), 305–327.
21. Gupta, N., A. Varshney, M. Ramappa, S. Basu, V. Romano, M. Acharya, A. Gaur, N. Kapur, A. Singh, G. Shah, I. Chaudhary. (2022). Role of AS-OCT in managing corneal disorders. Diagnostics, 12(4), 918.
22. Hagag, A., S. Gao, Y. Jia, D. Huang. (2017). Optical coherence tomography angiography: tech-nical principles and clinical applications in ophthalmology. Taiwan Journal of Ophthalmology, 7(3), 115–129.
23. Hamzeh, N., S. Moghimi, G. Latifi, M. Mohammadi, N. Khatibi, S. Lin. (2015). Lens thickness assessment: anterior segment optical coherence tomography versus A-scan ultrasonography. In-ternational Journal of Ophthalmology, 8(6), p. 1151.
24. Hau, S., V. Papastefanou, S. Shah, M. Sagoo, M. Restori, V. Cohen. (2015). Evaluation of iris and iridociliary body lesions with anterior segment optical coherence tomography versus ultrasound B-scan. British Journal of Ophthalmology, 99(1), 81–86.
25. Hayashi, A., G. Giacalone, T. Yamamoto, F. Belva, G. Visconti, N. Hayashi, M. Handa, H. Yoshi-matsu, M. Salgarello. (2019). Ultra high-frequency ultrasonographic imaging with 70 MHz scanner for visualization of the lymphatic vessels. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery–Global Open, 7(1), e2086.
26. Hernandez‐Merino, E., H. Kecova, S. Jacobson, K. Hamouche, R. Nzokwe, S. Grozdanic. (2011). Spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD‐OCT) assessment of the healthy female canine retina and optic nerve. Veterinary Ophthalmology, 14(6), 400–405.
27. Huang, D., E. Swanson, C. Lin, J. Schuman, W. Stinson, W. Chang, M. Hee, T. Flotte, K. Gregory, C. Puliafito, G. Fujimoto. (1991). Optical coherence tomography. Science, 254(5035), 1178–1181.
28. Ivanova, D., D. Mitova, V. Zhelezova, I. Minev, T. Gunev. (2018). OCT angiography-new views of the retina. Scripta Scientifica Vox Studentium, 2, 38.
29. Javed, A., A. Khanna, E. Palmer, C. Wilde, A. Zaman, G. Orr, D. Kumudhan, A. Lakshmanan, G. Panos. (2023). Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography (OCTA): A Review of the Current Literature. Journal of International Medical Research, 51(7), p.03000605231187933.
30. Jeong, Y., S. Kang, J. Ahn, S. Kim, H. Kim, J. Park, K. Seo. (2023). Assessment of corneal and limbal epithelial thickness by spectral‐domain optical coherence tomography in brachycephalic and non‐brachycephalic dogs. Veterinary Ophthalmology, 26, 89–97.
31. Kato, Y., T. Kojima, A. Tamaoki, K. Ichikawa, K. Tamura, K. Ichikawa. (2022). Refractive pre-diction error in cataract surgery using an optical biometer equipped with anterior segment OCT. Journal of Cataract & Refractive Surgery, 48(4), 429-434.
32. Kim, S., J. Shim, S. Kang, K. Seo. (2023). Inter-device agreement between spectral domain optical coherence tomography, ultrasound biomicroscopy, and gonioscopy in evaluating the iridocorneal angle in normotensive dogs. Journal of Veterinary Science, 24(4), e34.
33. Khodeiry, M., E. Colvin, M. Ayoubi, X. Mendoza, M. Kostic. (2025). Applications of Optical Co-herence Tomography in Optic Nerve Head Diseases: A Narrative Review. Diagnostics, 15(23), 3001.
34. Komatsu, H., M. Akasaka, M. Morita, K. Usami, M. Inagaki, K. Kumashiro, K. Tsubota, Y. Usui, H. Goto, Y. Kobayashi. (2024). A Pilot Study to Evaluate the Usefulness of Optical Coherence Tomography for Staging Iris Pigmented Lesions in Cats. Veterinary Sciences, 11(6), p.261.
35. Konstantopoulos, A., P. Hossain, D. Anderson. (2007). Recent advances in ophthalmic anterior segment imaging: a new era for ophthalmic diagnosis?. British Journal of Ophthalmology, 91(4), 551–557.
36. Koustenis, A., A. Harris, J. Gross, I. Januleviciene, A. Shah, B. Siesky. (2017). Optical coherence tomography angiography: an overview of the technology and an assessment of applications for clinical research. British Journal of Ophthalmology, 101(1), 16–20.
37. Lan, C., T. Chiu, W. Yen, D. Lu. (2025). Artificial intelligence in glaucoma: advances in diagnosis, progression forecasting, and surgical outcome prediction. International Journal of Molecular Sci-ences, 26(10), 4473.
38. Leitgeb, R., C. Hitzenberger, A. Fercher. (2003). Performance of fourier domain vs. time domain optical coherence tomography. Optics Express, 11(8), 889–894.
39. Maqbool, B., M. Arshad, N. Muhammad, S. Gul. (2025). Role of Artificial Intelligence in Veteri-nary Anatomical Diagnostics and Zoonotic Disease Monitoring. Annals of Anatomy-Anatomischer Anzeiger, 152756.
40. McLellan, G. and C. Rasmussen. (2012). Optical coherence tomography for the evaluation of reti-nal and optic nerve morphology in animal subjects: practical considerations. Veterinary Ophthal-mology, 15, 13–28.
41. Meleppat, R., C. Fortenbach, Y. Jian, E. Martinez, K. Wagner, B. Modjtahedi, M. Motta, D. Rama-murthy, I. Schwab, R. Zawadzki. (2022). In vivo imaging of retinal and choroidal morphology and vascular plexuses of vertebrates using swept-source optical coherence tomography. Translational Vision Science & Technology, 11(8), 11–11.
42. Mischi, E., P. Soukup, C. Harman, K. Oikawa, M. Kowalska, S. Hartnack, G. McLellan, A. Komár-omy, S. Pot. (2022). Outer retinal thickness and visibility of the choriocapillaris in four distinct retinal regions imaged with spectral domain optical coherence tomography in dogs and cats. Vet-erinary Ophthalmology, 25, 122–135.
43. Mortier, J., T. Maddox, L. Blackwood, M. La Fontaine, V. Busoni. (2023). Dynamic contrast-en-hanced computed tomography in 11 dogs with orofacial tumors. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 84(5).
44. Mowat, F., K. Gervais, L. Occelli, M. Annear, J. Querubin, J. Bainbridge, A. Smith, R. Ali, S. Petersen-Jones. (2017). Early-onset progressive degeneration of the area centralis in RPE65-defi-cient dogs. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, 58(7), 3268–3277.
45. Nakazawa, M., A. Hara, S. Ishiguro. (2019). Optical coherence tomography of animal models of retinitis pigmentosa: from animal studies to clinical applications. BioMed Research International, 2019(1), 8276140.
46. Nurjanah, T., M. Patel, J. Mar, D. Holden, S. Barrett, N. Yannuzzi. (2025). Expanding Application of Optical Coherence Tomography Beyond the Clinic: A Narrative Review. Diagnostics, 15(9), 1140.
47. Radhakrishnan, S., J. Goldsmith, D. Huang, V. Westphal, D. Dueker, A. Rollins, J. Izatt, S. Smith. (2005). Comparison of optical coherence tomography and ultrasound biomicroscopy for detection of narrow anterior chamber angles. Archives of Ophthalmology, 123(8), 1053–1059.
48. Rahmoun, D., M. Maksoud, M. Lieshchova, R. Mylostyvyi. (2025). Applications of artificial intel-ligence in veterinary anatomical pathology: enhancing diagnosis and treatment in animal healthcare. Acta Veterinaria Eurasia, 51(1), 1–7.
49. Ripolles-Garcia, A., G. Ruthel, G. Ying, Y. Chen, N. Cuenca, G. Aguirre, W. Beltran. (2021). Characterization of the canine retinal vasculature with optical coherence tomography angi-ography: comparisons with histology and fluorescein angiography. Frontiers in Neuroanatomy, 15, 785249.
50. Sakata, L., J. DeLeon‐Ortega, V. Sakata, C. Girkin. (2009). Optical coherence tomography of the retina and optic nerve–a review. Clinical & Experimental Ophthalmology, 37(1), 90–99.
51. Schuman, J., T. Pedut-Kloizman, H. Pakter, N. Wang, V. Guedes, L. Huang, L. Pieroth, W. Scott, M. Hee, J. Fujimoto, H. Ishikawa. (2007). Optical coherence tomography and histologic measure-ments of nerve fiber layer thickness in normal and glaucomatous monkey eyes. Investigative Oph-thalmology & Visual Science, 48(8), 3645–3654.
52. Sekiryu, T. (2022). Choroidal imaging using optical coherence tomography: techniques and inter-pretations. Japanese Journal of Ophthalmology, 66(3), 213–226.
53. Siahmed, K., O. Berges, L. Desjardins, L. Lumbroso, G. Brasseur. (2004). Imagerie des tumeurs du segment antérieur: avantages respectifs de l’échographie (10, 20 et 50 MHz) et de la tomogra-phie en cohérence optique. Journal Français d'Ophtalmologie, 27(2), 169–173.
54. Shim, J., S. Kang, Y. Jeong, E. Lee, D. Jeong, K. Seo. (2022). Comparison of iridocorneal angle parameters measured by spectral domain optical coherence tomography and ultrasound biomi-croscopy in dogs. Veterinary Ophthalmology, 25, 103–110.
55. Strouthidis, N., B. Fortune, H. Yang, I. Sigal, C. Burgoyne. (2011). Longitudinal change detected by spectral domain optical coherence tomography in the optic nerve head and peripapillary retina in experimental glaucoma. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, 52(3), 1206–1219.
56. Tatham, A. and F. Medeiros. (2017). Detecting structural progression in glaucoma with optical coherence tomography. Ophthalmology, 124(12), S57–S65.
57. Thomas, D. and G. Duguid. (2004). Optical coherence tomography – a review of the principles and contemporary uses in retinal investigation. Eye, 18(6), 561–570.
58. Tian, J., P. Marziliano, M. Baskaran, H. Wong, T. Aung. (2011). Automatic anterior chamber angle assessment for HD-OCT images. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, 58(11), 3242–3249.
59. Tsukagoshi, S., T. Ota, M. Fujii, M. Kazama, M. Okumura, T. Johkoh. (2007). Improvement of spatial resolution in the longitudinal direction for isotropic imaging in helical CT. Physics in Med-icine & Biology, 52(3), 791.
60. Tugal-Tutkun, I., C. Herbort Jr, A. Mantovani, P. Neri, M. Khairallah. (2021). Advances and po-tential new developments in imaging techniques for posterior uveitis. Part 1: noninvasive imaging methods. Eye, 35(1), 33–51.
61. Van Velthoven, M., M. van der Linden, M. de Smet, D. Faber, F. Verbraak. (2006). Influence of cataract on optical coherence tomography image quality and retinal thickness. British Journal of Ophthalmology, 90(10), 1259–1262.
62. Vanore, M. and M. Benoit-Biancamano. (2023). Optical coherence tomography: a review of cur-rent applications in veterinary ophthalmology. Veterinary Clinics: Small Animal Practice, 53(2), 319–338.
63. Vira, J., A. Marchese, R. Singh, A. Agarwal. (2020). Swept-source optical coherence tomography imaging of the retinochoroid and beyond. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 17(5), 413–426.
64. Wang, C., W. Yang, X. Liao. (2025). Advancements in anterior segment optical coherence tomog-raphy for cataract surgery. Photodiagnosis and Photodynamic Therapy, p. 104745.
65. Wei, X., T. Hormel, S. Pi, B. Wang, J. Morrison, Y. Jia. (2022). Wide-field sensorless adaptive optics swept-source optical coherence tomographic angiography in rodents. Optics Letters, 47(19), 5060-5063.
66. Zeppieri, M., S. Marsili, E. Enaholo, A. Shuaibu, N. Uwagboe, C. Salati, L. Spadea, M. Musa. (2023). Optical coherence tomography (OCT): a brief look at the uses and technological evolution of ophthalmology. Medicina, 59(12), 2114.
67. Zwolska, J., I. Balicki, A. Balicka. (2023). Morphological and morphometric analysis of canine choroidal layers using spectral domain optical coherence tomography. International Journal of En-vironmental Research and Public Health, 20(4), 3121.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 TRADITION AND MODERNITY IN VETERINARY MEDICINE
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
